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Key Japanese Literary and Cultural Terms for the Study of Japanese Literature

<Manyôshû>

shintô The "way of the Gods"; i.e. Japanese religious beliefs as distinguished from Buddhism.

Yamato Early name of Japan as specified in mythology.

tama soul, or spirit, which could reside in people, things, or even words (see *kotodama, below). A person’s tama might travel after death or during sleep; it could reinvigorated or pacified by ritual actions, including dance and the recitation of poetry.

kotodama the "word spirit" or belief that, in Konishi Jin’ichi’s words, "spoken Japanese expressed in certain ways would, when produced, reach the listener through the medium of breath ad bring about either an auspicious or a calamitous reaction."

waka Japanese poem, as distinct from shi or kanshi (poems in Chinese). Used to refer to chôka and tanka. After the tanka becomes the primary poetic form with Kokin wakashû, the term is normally used to refer to *tanka. Often used synonymously with uta (Japanese poems and/or songs).

chôka "long Japanese poem." Unlimited number of lines of alternating 5 and 7 syllable *ku (lines). Chôka are often followed by one, two, or three *hanka. Characteristic form of the Manyôshû, even though the majority of its poems are tanka. Chôka fall into disuse by the time of the Kokinshû.

tanka "short Japanese poem." 31 syllable poem consisting of 5 *ku of 5/7/5/7/7 syllables.

hanka "envoy." A poem or poems in tanka for attached to a *chôka as a kind of coda.

ku A division in Japanese poetry, delimited by syllable count or syntax. Often called a line, although poems were often not divided by line when written. Usually, although not always, 5 or 7 syllables.

banka "elegies," one of three important general categories of Manyôshû poems.

sômonka "relationship poems," or poems which convey intimate feelings. Most have to do with courtship, although relationships between friends and parents and children are also treated. The second general category of Manyôshû poems.

zôka "miscellaneous poems" the third important general category of poems in the Manyôshû. Includes celebratory poems, poems commemorating public events, etc. The distinction between zôka and *sômonka illustrates a distinction between public and private which was important to Japanese poetry even after the Manyôshû.

makurakotoba "pillow words," fixed word or phrase, usually of 5 syllables, placed in front of certain words or place names. E.g. "ao ni yoshi," which could mean "rich in earth," is a makurakotoba for Nara, the site of one of the early Japanese capitals. Carter translates this combination as "Nara where the earth is rich" on page 25. The relationship between makurakotoba and the words they attach to could be one of meaning, association, metaphor, or sound link; in any case they are highly conventionalized.

kunimi "gazing down upon the land," an early Japanese ritual performed by emperors to assert their authority and lay claim to territory. An early instance of the importance placed in Japanese culture on the act of "seeing" or "gazing."

<Kokin wakashû>

kana literally, "provisional characters." The phonetic Japanese writing system, developed during the 9^th century by using simplified versions of the Chinese characters strictly to represent Japanese sounds. Its development enabled the Japanese to write poetry and prose more naturally in their own language. There are two separate syllabaries distinguished by the style in which the characters are written: the cursive-style hiragana and the more rectalinear katakana. Since it was often used by women, who typically did not have access to an education in the Chinese writing system, kana (especially hiragana) was also known as onnade, or "the woman’s hand." Nearly all of the literature we will read in this class was written either in kana or in kanamajiri, a mixture of kana and Chinese characters.

mana literally, "true characters." A Japanese word for Chinese characters, called kanji in modern Japanese. Prose in Chinese characters was called kambun. Most formal writing, such as government or religious documents, was written in kambun. Because it was men who were usually educated in Chinese and wrote these types of documents, mana was also referred to as otokode, or "the man’s hand."

jokotoba "prefatory words" a phrase of indeterminate length but otherwise similar to *makurakotoba in that it is used immediately prior to a word or phrase with which it has strong associations.

utamakura "poetic place names," or toponyms which came to have cultural significance due to their use in poetry. (The names of places, things, and people had a strong power in ancient Japan; in the Manyôshû period, utterance of a name might give one power over the *tama of that person or place.) Many utamakura came to be associated with specific things, e.g. Yoshino with cherry blossoms, and Tatsutagawa with autumn foliage.

kakekotoba "pivot words" a word or words in a poem functioning in more than one syntactic structure–a kind of punning relying on synonomousness and homonymity.

engo words with strong semantic or other associative links, used together in one poem or to link two or more poems with one another. E.g. kasumi (mist) is an engo for spring.

dai "topic." The predetermined or clearly identified topic of a poem.

kotoba "words," the diction of poetry. Used by Ki no Tsurayuki and other critics in contradistinction to the *kokoro.

kokoro "heart" or "mind," the motivating force behind poetic expression. Could also be translated as "intention." The "message" of a poem as opposed to the medium, the *kotoba.

mitate "elegant confusion." A favorite poetic style that involves the courtly, aestheticized expression of "confusion," over observations of phenomenon in the natural environment. E.g. wondering if falling cherry blossoms are falling snow. Probably adopted into *waka from "Six Dynasties" style Chinese poetry.

miyabi "refined, courtly elegance," the standard ideal for *waka poetry from the time of the Kokin wakashû. Required the exclusion from poetry of coarse, frightening, or vulgar topics and language. Emphasized refinement of sentiment and subtlety of expression. Miyabi derives from the verb miyabu, to behave as one would in the court or capital (miya or miyako). Miyabi might also describe the aesthetic system and ideals of behavior described in such works as Ise monogatari and Genji monogatari.

mujô "impermanence" or "insubstantiality." The word used to describe the Buddhist concept that everything in the world is subject to "the ravages of time" and that nothing is lasting and permanent. As Professor Stahl writes, "this concept is at the heart of traditional Japanese literature and manifests itself first in the form of a painful awareness of the fleeting nature of existence and pessimism over the human condition."

koi "love." As Prof. Stahl notes, koi refers to the process of intimate relationships (rather than to merely their realization). Most often, koi as treated in *waka refers to the initial stages of a courtship and longing of unrequited. 5 of 20 books of the Kokin wakashû are devoted to koi no uta.

koishi "romantic longing," important emotion expressed in waka.

natsukashi "notsalgia," or "longing." an important emotion expressed often in Japanese literature. Becomes prominent after exposure to Buddhist philosophy makes the Japanese more aware of *mujô.

<Ise monogatari> and <Makura no sôshi (The Pillow Book)>

monogatari "tales" or "prose narrative." Together with *waka, an important genre of traditional Japanese literature. Almost all works in this genre incorporate *waka poems and enlarge upon poetic conventions and sentiments in various ways. Uta monogatari are narratives about the writing of poetry (e.g. Ise monogatari), while tsukuri monogatari, "fictional" or "made-up" tales, (e.g. Genji monogatari) are similar to more conventional narratives.

nikki "diaries." Another important genre of Japanese literature. While important statesmen wrote diaries in *kambun (see *mana), private diaries are especially associated with *onnade (see *kana) and women’s literature. The first important diary written primarily in *kana is the male poet Ki no tsurayuki’s Tosa nikki (935), written, intriguingly, in the voice of a woman. As this example suggests, nikki often included fictional elements.

zuihitsu literally, "following the brush." A genre of free-flowing prose meditations on a variety of subjects. Important examples are the Makura no sôshi (c. 1000) of Sei Shônagon, and the Tsurezuregusa (1330) of Kenkô, both of which contributed to the codification of the aesthetic standards of their time.

iro "eros." Often refers to the more carnal aspect of love, as opposed to koi. Iro (which can also be read Chinese-style as shiki or shoku), can also mean "color." It is used in Buddhist philosophy to refer to form, matter, or existence, as opposed to ku, or nothingness.

iro gonomi "lover of love," refers in the Heian period to matters pertaining to iro; or, to a person who understands the nature of love, or is predisposed to amorous affairs. May be associated with the prerogative of males of imperial liniage to have access to many women. The characters for iro gonomi can be read as kôshoku, and referred in the Edo period especially to amorous males of a gentle, passive kind.

kaimami literally, "peeking through the fence." A kind of voyeurism which appears frequently in *monogatari, in which a male catches a glimpse–or spies upon–a woman through a blind, or an opening in a fence, etc.

katami "momento" or "keepsake." A tangible object (e.g. a letter, robe, or hairpin) which is strongly associated in a person’s mind with a specific person or event.

<Genji monogatari>

mono no aware "the pathos of things." The deep feelings inherent in, or felt from, the world and the experience of it. Refers to both the occasions, phenomenon (people or natural elements) that elicit such emotion and the response to them. Aware was originally an interjection, a strong version of the English, "ah!" Motoori Norinaga (1730-1801), a famous kokugakusha or "scholar of national learning," argued that mono no aware is at the heart of Genji monogatari.

sukuse Japanese term for Karma. One of the central concepts of Buddhism. Causes and effects through transmigrations of the soul: actions/causes in one incarnation will have effects or consequences in subsequent incarnations. In Genji and Heike sukuse is also interpreted as actions and consequences within the time of a single incarnation (thus adding to the element of personal responsibility).

Lotus Sutra Arguably the most important Mahayana Buddhist sutra in Heian Japan. It describes the sermon given by the Buddha at Vulture Peak Mountain before a large assembly of various sentient beings. In it the Buddha shows that there are many means or expedients (see *hôben) through which a person can achieve enlightenment, which have only temporary validity and in their nature are all one. The Lotus sutra was also significant in that it suggested, through a story about the Dragon King’s daughter, that women (traditionally considered inferior in Buddhist thought) could also achieve enlightenment without lengthy incarnation into male bodies. Nobles in Heian Japan sometimes commissioned elaborate recitations of the Lotus Sutra in the belief that it would have a beneficial effect on their own Karma or that of a loved one.

hôben "expedients" or "accomodations." Term expressing the Mahayana Buddhist doctrine that the Buddha devises innumerable means to adapt his teachings to different sentient beings depending on their capacity for understanding. In the "fireflies" chapter of Genji monogatari, Genji argues that fiction can, when serious, become a means toward enlightenment (this view is often taken to represent Murasaki Shikibu’s view of literature).

Pure Land while many Pure Lands or Buddha-realms, exist (just as there are many Buddhas), Pure Land usually refers to the Western Paradise ruled by Buddha Amitabha, or Amida in Japanese. Some Japanese Buddhists believed that strong faith in the salvational power of Amida Buddha would allow them to be reborn into the Western Paradise in the next life.

aishû "attachments." Japanese term for the Buddhist concept of attachments or clinging to things in the world being the origin of suffering. They can be obstacles both to Buddhist enlightenment and to the transmigration of the soul (cf. *onryô).

onyrô "angry ghosts." Sprits that linger in the world after death due to the extraordinary circumstances under which they die. According to popular belief deriving from Buddhism, *aishû, or lingering attachments to the world (e.g. love, hate, or other intense emotions), and especially the emotion urami, resentment against a perceived wrong, can prevent the spirit from transmigrating after death.

mono no ke a spirit which, belonging to a dead or a living person, often acting independently of that person’s conscious will, which can rise out of the body and do harm to others.

<Shin kokinwakashû, Hôjôki, Tsurezuregusa>

uta no michi "the way of poetry." Medieval concept first espoused by Fujiwara no Shunzei that poetry, if approached with seriousness and devotion, could itself become a means toward Enlightenment. This concept came to be extended to other arts as well, such as the Way of Tea (sadô), the Way of Flower Arranging (kadô), the Way of the Warrior (bushidô), etc.

kami no ku the "upper" three *ku of a *tanka poem, i.e. the first three ku 5, 7, and 5 syllables.

shimo no ku the "lower" two *ku of a *tanka poem, i.e. the final two ku of seven syllables each. One tendency of Shin kokinshû-era poetry is for the shimo no ku to become increasingly independent of the *kami no ku.

kotoba furuku, kokoro atarashi "classical diction, contemporary conception." Phrase coined by Fujiwara Teika to describe the new neoclassical ideal for poetry. The means to remain linked to the waka tradition and enable individual expression of emotion and thought. Intimately connected with the practice of *honkadôri.

honkadôri "allusive variation." Important poetic practice of alluding to another or several poems from the past. Allusion can be made by referring to exact language of a precedent poem or by referring to the specific emotion or sensibility expressed in it. Although this practice can be traced to the Kokinshû, it gained increasing importance by the time of the Shin kokinshû. Honkadôri indicated the continuity of meaningfulness of the emotions, perceptions, and aesthetic sensibilities of past poets. It emphasizes what people have in common.

en "charm," or "beauty." In Fujiwara Shunzei’s poetics, en refers to a rich, romantic charm associated with the ancient court.

yôembi "ethereal beauty." A style expressive of the delicate, of the ethereal, and of romance using complex techniques.

yojô "overtones" "remaining feeling" "lingering sentiment." The aesthetic ideal of suggestiveness, the affective and cognitive richness lingering after one has finished reading a poem. Closely related to the idea of *yûgen.

sabi "beauty in scenes of deprivation." An atmosphere of loneliness, stillness, quiet; seeking beauty in monochromatic scenes and situations lacking color and brightness. First discussed as a positive idea by Fujiwara Shunzei; also important for the *haikai poet Matsuo Bashô. Related to the words sabi (rust, patina), and sabishi (lonely, desolate).

yûgen "the style of mystery and depth." Yûgen is often held to be the ultimate aesthetic value in medieval poetry and drama, but notoriously difficult to define. Implies expression that is especially profound and affecting and that somehow goes beyond words used to convey it. Closely associated with *sabi and *yojô. Important early mentions of yûgen come in Fujiwara Shunzei’s poetic judgements and in Kamo no chômei’s poetry treatise Mumyôsho. Later, Zeami adapted the term to describe ultimate depth and beauty in the nô theater: in Rimer and Yamazaki’s translation of Zeami’s treatise Kakyô (A Mirror Held to the Flower), the term is translated (rather inadequately) as "Grace."

mappô "the Decline of the Law" or "the latter days." Foretold in Buddhist scripture that Buddhist teachings would go through three periods after the Buddha’s death. In the first, people would still have the capacity both to comprehend and to practice the Buddhist’s teaching; in the second, people would be able to understand the theory of the teachings but not to implement them in practice. In the third and final period, mappô, they would be capable of neither. Some Japanese calculated this period to begin in 1052.

<Heike monogatari, nô drama>

bushi warriors, also called Samurai. Come to the fore from the late Heian period.

Genji and Heike two clans which fought for control of Japan in the so-called Gempei wars of ca. 1131-1191. They were also known as the Minamoto and Taira. The Heike became the most powerful family in Japan under the leadership of the haughty and ruthless Taira no Kiyomori; the Heike monogatari traces the Heike’s fall from the heights of power, and their eventual defeat at the battle of Dan no Ura at the hands of the brilliant Genji general Minamoto no Yoshitsune. Yoshitsune’s elder brother, Yoritomo, established the new shogunate, or military and political headquarters, at Kamakura. Perceiving his popular younger brother to be a threat to his new power, Yoritomo had his forces pursue Yoshitsune to northern Japan, where Yoshitsune, surrounded and outnumbered by Yoritomo’s forces, committed suicide. Yoshitsune thus became the great tragic hero of Japan; echoes of his story are found in the nô plays Yashima and Funa Benkei (not assigned), as well as Bashô’s Oku no hosomichi (The Narrow Road to the Deep North).

chinkon "pacification of lingering spirits." Seen to be one of the main purposes behind the composition and recitation of the Heike monogatari. A similar principle can be observed in the nô theater.

nanori "announcing one’s name." Important ritual act of self-identification which preceded engaging in combat in medieval Japan. Nanori is also the name for the *waki’s self-introductory speech at the beginning of a nô play. Nanori is another instance of the importance of names (see *utamakura); another indication of this power is the reluctance of the *shite in many nô plays to divulge their names.

rokudô the "six paths" or "six forms of existence." Japanese term for the Buddhist concept of the six forms into which a soul can transmigrate: ten (devas or demigods), ningen (humans), shûra (asura, giants or demons who are condemned to constantly fight each other), chikushô (beasts), gaki (hungry ghosts), and jigoku (dwellers in hell). Unless able to achieve Enlightenment, the soul will migrate eternally among these six paths; this state of eternal wandering is known in Sanskrit as samsâra.

nô a type of drama, often employing masks, brought to perfection in the Muromachi period by Kan’ami and his son Zeami. Nô evolved from a combination of religious rituals, popular songs and dances, and earlier dramatic forms such as dengaku and sarugaku. The five traditional categories of nô are waki-nô (God plays), shûra-mono (warrior plays–see *rokudô), kazura-mono (the *shite is often a beautiful woman, and the tenor of the play is gentle), yobanme-mono (the *shite is usually a mad person–either female or male), and kiri-nô (often involves the supernatural beings and occurrences; the play moves quickly).

hana "flower." In Zeami’s theory of nô, the term for the actor’s highest realization of his art; the nature of the hana may change at different stages of an actor’s career.

hie Cold, icy beauty cherished by some medieval artists. It’s greatest exponent was the renga poet Shinkei, who claimed that "nothing is more beautiful than ice." Zeami also adapted employed the hie aesthetic in some of his nô plays and criticism, and the ideal found later echoes in Bashô’s poetry.

"what is felt in the heart is ten; what appears in movement seven" an expression in Zeami’s Kakyô suggesting that an actor’s performance should be deliberately restrained in order to create the greatest dramatic and emotional effect. Compare with the poetic idea of *yojô.

jo-ha-kyû three part rhythm ("preface" or opening, "breaking up" or development, and "rush" or fast close). Developed in *renga and later applied in *nô. Jo-ha-kyû structure can apply at many levels of the play, from the enunciation of words, to the structure of an individual play, to the ordering of several different plays in a lengthy day’s performance.

michiyuki "going on the road." In nô, the journey to the main play’s setting narrated by the *waki near the beginning of the play. The speed with which the waki’s journey is summarized, compressing what would have been weeks if not months of travel into the deliberately paced narration of a few lines, may suggest that the nô play explores a region of space and time different from ordinary reality. Later, in the *jôruri of Chikamatsu, the michiyuki narrates the journey of two lovers to the place of their double suicide, i.e. from life to death. Both nô and jôruri michiyuki exploit the poetic associations and punning potential of place names. See *utamakura.

waki the secondary character in nô, a priest or other traveller appearing at the beginning of a play.

shite the main character of a nô play. Typically the shite will appear in a disguise in the first half of a play, and after the shite’s true identity is guessed by the waki, the shite will appear undisguised in the second half of the play.

kyôgen 1) the ai kyôgen, a down-to-earth character who appears in the middle of a nô play to give a more colloquial and sometimes humorous account of the story which forms the basis or background for the play. 2) later, kyôgen developed into a separate, more earthy and humorous type of drama which is often performed between nô plays.

modoki "parody," or bringing something lofty and divine down to human and profane terms. For example, in the sacred waki no (God nô) Okina, an auspicious, divine old man dances an elegant dance, while a second character with a grotesque black mask appears and comically apes the old man’s movements. The principle of parody can also be observed in the relationship between nô and kyôgen and between waka and haikai.

<renga, haikai>

renga "linked poetry." Practice of (usually) two or more poets alternately reciting *kami no ku and *shimo no ku. Became a serious art by the late 12^th century, and flourished in the Muromachi period. Various types of associations were used to link the kami no ku and shimo no ku, and elaborate rules, or canons, were devised for what types of movements between ku were permitted, as well as for what types of thematic material were allowed in each place. While these canons now seem fussy and arcane, they insured that renga would maintain a sense of movement without falling into overt narrative, and they allowed knowledgeable poets to improvise verses together within a challenging but mutually understood structure. Common sequences were of one stanzaic link (tanrenga), 36 links (kasen), 100 links (hyakushûuta) and even 1000 links (senku).

haikai no renga "comic or nonstandard renga." Characterized by parody of serious waka tradition and liberation from its strict restrictions with regard to diction and topic. Haikai is used more generally to refer to all types of literature derived from haikai no renga, especially *hokku, or what are now called haiku.

hokku The technical term for the opening 17-syllable kami no ku of a renga sequence, usually containing a kigo or seasonal word. Later, hokku came to be appreciated on their own merit as independent poems. In modern times, this type of independent verse of 5/7/5 syllables became known as haiku.

haibun Prose written in the spirit of haikai. It is usually interspersed with hokku.

fûryû The refined taste of a poet or artist that is manifested in his work and lifestyle. In classical times, its meaning was close to *miyabi. In haikai, it usually presumes freedom from the conflict-ridden activities of normal life.

nioi Literally, "fragrance." A term used by the Bashô school to indicate the subtle way in which two verses in a haikai no renga sequence are linked. It refers to the sentiment or mood of one verse imperceptively drifting into that of another verse, like the fragrance of a flower drifting in the wind.

shibumi Subtle, unobtrusive beauty preferred by artists and connoisseurs since medieval times. Originally designating a sour taste, the word has come to be used as an antonym not only of sweet taste but of decorative, ostentatious beauty. Can be used to describe (for example) pottery or clothing as well as poetry. Closely linked to the aesthetic of *sabi and wabi, the enjoyment of things modest and simple-- an ideal closely connected to the Tea Ceremony.

<Chikamatsu and Saikaku>

jôruri a word for various types of dramatic narration with musical accompaniment. Today, jôruri for puppets of the sort that Chikamatsu wrote is called bunraku.

kabuki a type of extravagant live theater which flourished in the later Edo period. The word kabuki derives from kabuku, "to act outrageously."

ukiyo 1) Buddhist term for the world of suffering, this world, the amatory world. 2) From Muromachi times it came to refer to the "floating world" of sensuality, especially to the pleasure quarters. Prose stories about the "floating world" of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, such as those written by Ihara Saikaku, were called ukiyo-zôshi. Woodblock prints and other pictures depicting the "floating world" were called ukiyo-e.

giri "duty." The particular obligations incurred from one’s relationships with others. The bond of obedience, service, and self-abnegation owed to superiors and family during the Edo period. Sometimes in conflict with *ninjô, sometimes its complement. An important aspect of Chikamatsu’s plays.

ninjô "human feelings." Fellow feeling or compassion for other people. Obligations owed to strangers and to inferiors; the natural workings of human passion and feelings often in conflict with *giri.

shinjû "double suicide" of lovers, esp. in Chikamatsu plays.

tsû Connoisseurship, full knowledge of a subject; also the person possessing the knowledge. It suggests full acquaintance of the details of some matter, special vocabulary, attention to detail, and innate taste. In the Edo period a common subject was of such knowledge was the pleasure quarters, their arts, languages, and styles, as well as other accomplishments such as haikai.

sui Thorough acquaintance with human feeling. Particularly, natural ability to behave knowingly in the pleasure quarters or more generally in the arts. This term came from the Osaka/Kyoto region; a somewhat similar term, iki, was used in the Edo (modern Tokyo) region. Also closely related to *tsû.

Note on the definitions: Special thanks to Prof. David Stahl at Middlebury College for his permission to adapt his vocabulary list developed for JA216. Other definitions are adapted from Earl Miner, Hiroko Odagiri, and Robert E. Morrell, The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature (Princeton University Press, 1985); and Makoto Ueda, Bashô and His Interpreters (Stanford University Press, 1991).